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Why doesn't an igloo melt inside?

by Tj Helm on 03,21,0909 in Did You Know

By Copyright © http://www.coolquiz.com
The igloo, a temporary winter hunting shelter to the Alaskan Eskimo does, in fact, melt inside, but not to a great extent.

The snowflakes falling outside of the igloo, in the harsh Alaskan winter, quickly melt when they land on its roof, and provide a replacement layer of insulation for the igloo. The ongoing freezing and re-freezing of the igloo, hardens it, and transforms the blocks of snow the Eskimos used in the construction process into a solid, icy, domed refuge. The igloo can now withstand the weight of a massive polar bear, should one happen along and have the urge to play “king of the mountain.”

The initial freezing and re-freezing of the igloo takes place at end of the igloo’s construction. First, the men must dig a trench into a fresh snow- drift, and, using their knives, cut blocks of snow from it that are specifically shaped to face inward when fully laid out. They then lay the blocks on their edges to form a circle, cutting them to size as they go, so that the end result will be a narrowing spiral. They cap the igloo by dropping a keystone, or block with edges cut wider above than below, into the remaining gap in the roof, and “grout” the gaps between blocks of snow with additional snow.

The men then call in the resident expert, the Eskimo woman, to put the finishing touches on the igloo. Armed with her whale blubber lamp, she enters the structure, lights her lamp to the highest possible setting, beats a hasty retreat, and seals the entrance with a block of ice. Inside the igloo, the snow on the roof begins to melt but, because of its domed design, the water melts down the sides of the igloo, and soaks the blocks of snow. When the blocks are almost completely saturated with water, the Eskimo woman returns, douses her blubber lamp, and allows the frigid outside air to rush in, transforming the fragile snow structure into one of hard, solid ice.

The igloo is now prepared for its temporary tenants, whose body heat, combined with the warmth of one to two blubber lamps, maintain its interior at approximately 55°F. Not until the winter ends, and the exterior temperature rises, does the igloo begin to melt. Hopefully, the Eskimos will be long gone by then, as the igloo will collapse…dome-first!

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How did coins get their names?

by Tj Helm on 02,24,0909 in Did You Know

By Copyright © http://www.coolquiz.com
One can bank on the fact that most coins derive from Latin words, and are named after people, places, or things.

Even the word coin, translates from the Latin “cuneus,” meaning wedge, and was thusly named because early coins ressembled the wedges the dies used to coin coins. Our cent, from the Latin “centum,” meaning one hundred, our dime, from the Latin “decimus,” meaning tenth, and the French franc, from the Latin “Franconium Rex,” meaning King of the Franks, are all examples of the naming of money, the root of all evil, which translates from the Latin word “mona,” meaning to warn!

On to a more weighty manner in which people named coins, that being physical weight. The English pound, translates from the Latin “pondo,” meaning pound, or, to get more heavily into detail, from the Latin “libra pondo,” meaning a pound of weight. This method of naming coins weighed heavily in naming of the Spanish peso and of the Italian lira.

A sense of fairness dictates that some coins bear the names of the metals of which they are composed. Thus, our nickel is made of nickel. Location, not Latin, sometimes figures prominently into the naming of sum (oops!), some coins. Our very own dollar, not always in paper form, originally hailed from the silver mines of Bohemia, where Bohemians extracted silver for the coins, and minted them in the town of Joachimsthal. Realizing that the coin they termed the Joachimsthaler, short of lacking in creativity, was rather lengthy, our Bohemian friends lost the head of the name, and kept the tail, with the end result being the thaler. The thaler eventually lost its lisp, and became our dollar.

Many countries used their word for crown, for example, crown, sovereign, krone, krun, krone, corona (not the beer), to demonstrate that some crown authority initially granted permission to mint them. Other countries named coins in honor of their heros, such as the Panamanian balboa, after the explorer Balboa, the Venezuelan bolivar, after one of it’s national heros, and the Peruvian sol, also not a beer, but the Spanish word for sun, after this ancient Incan object of worship.

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If nothing sticks to Teflon – how does Teflon stick to the pan?

by Tj Helm on 02,04,0909 in Did You Know

Teflon, the non-stick coating used on pots and pans, holds the title in the Guiness Book of World Records as being the slipperiest substance on earth.

Scientifically speaking, Teflon will not chemically bond to anything, but can be forced mechanically into small nooks and crannies. This slippery substance adheres to their surfaces once manufacturers sandblast them to roughen them, apply a primer, and embed the Teflon into the primer.

DuPont scientist, Dr. Roy Plunkett, accidentally created the recipe for Teflon in 1938, while attempting to produce a better coolant gas than the one currently on the market. In doing so, he toyed with different combinations of gases and, either accidentally or intentionally, left one batch of gasses in a container overnight. Upon arrival at work the following morning, he found that the gasses in the container had “vaporized,” and in their stead, found a slippery, waxy solid, which remained intact when exposed to corrosive chemicals which normally eat through things with which they come into contact.

The substance Dr. Plunkett discovered in the container that day was tetrafluoroethylene (PTFE), a solid version of fluorocarbons, or freon. For pronunciation’s sake, the doctor shortened the name for the substance to Teflon, but even the abbreviated name failed to nudge DuPont into production of the product.

In fact, DuPont waited until 1948, ten years after Teflon’s discovery, before beginning its production for commercial applications.

As DuPont dragged its heels in launching Teflon, a Parisian named Marc Gregoire learned of it, and successfully applied it to his fishing tackle to prevent the line from tangling. At his wife’s urging, he managed to apply Teflon to her pots and pans, and within several years, this entrepreneur sold in excess of one million Tefal (his name for Teflon) coated pots and pans.

The concept of Teflon coated pots and pans did not stick in America. When UPI reporter Thomas Hardie encountered one of these coated pans, when visiting a friend who had just returned from Paris, he saw a niche in the American market for the slick pots and pans, and immediately contacted Marc Gregoire in Paris. Hardie pitched these pots and pans to every major U.S. manufacturer of cooking utensils to no avail. His next move in his quest for a buyer was to import 3,000 of the pots and pans, with the goal of selling them to all major department stores. Once again, he hit a roadblock until, finally, he convinced a buyer at Macy’s Herald Square to take 200 pans off of his hands. All sold within two days, despite a major snowstorm.

Hardie had finally arrived, and could not keep up with the demand for his product. While building a manufacturing plant to produce the product, other manufacturers of pots and pans took advantage of Hardie’s moment of silence on the scene, seized the opportunity, and manufactured their own coated pots and pans.

Today, the use of Teflon coating is firmly embedded in America, and extends beyond pots and pans to include bakeware and other kitchen utensils. Hardie’s initiative and staying power paid off handsomely.

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The Vietnam Veterans Memorial

by Tj Helm on 10,31,0808 in Did You Know

Congress authorized the Vietnam Veterans Memorial to be constructed in the Constitution Gardens of Washington, D.C., on July 1, 1980.

That fall a contest, open to United States citizens over eighteen, was announced to find a design for the memorial. A jury of eight anonymous artists voted on the 1,421 entries submitted. The winner was, then twenty-one year old college student, Maya Ying Lin of Ohio.

Ground was formally broken on March 26, 1982, with the life-sized sculpture of the servicemen, designed by Frederick Hart, being installed in the fall of 1984. Once it had been completed, President Ronald Regan formally accepted the memorial on behalf of the nation on November 11, 1984.

In 1979, when the Vietnam Veterans Memorial Fund Inc. decided to petition for a memorial, they set out four criteria: the monument had to be reflective and contemplative, it had to blend with its surrounding, it had to contain the names of all those who died or were missing, and finally it could make no political statement about the war.

The design Maya Ying Lin came up with did all those things. On the polished black granite of the monument are the 58,209 names of those who died during the war, listed in order from the first casualty to the last. Included in this number are the names of the 1,150 people who were not confirmed dead and were listed as missing and unaccounted for at the end of the war.

Those confirmed dead have a diamond placed by their name on the wall. Those who were reported missing bear a cross next to their name. If they return alive, a circle is placed around the cross to symbolize life. If their remains are returned or their death is confirmed, a diamond is placed around the cross.

Visitors leave thousands of mementos and flowers at the memorial each year as a remembrance to those who are gone or missing. Every night members of the National Park Service collect the mementos left and deliver them to the Smithsonian Museum who displays them on a rotating basis in the National History Museum.

Did you know?

Every Sunday morning the monument is cleaned by a different group of veterans.

The letters are 0.53 inches high, and were grit blasted in 0.038 inches.

The walls, bearing the names, are 246.75 feet long.

The granite used in the monument came from Bangalore, India, and was cut and fabricated in Barre, Vermont.

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Emoticons and E-mail Shorthand

by Tj Helm on 09,14,0808 in Did You Know

Emoticons and E-mail Shorthand Smileys are tiny pictures made from ordinary ASCII characters that are meant to be looked at with the head tilted to the left.

Smileys came about when e-mail correspondents felt the need to convey emotional content such as sarcasm, laughter and other feelings as part of their messages.

Without smileys, simple statements could easily be misinterpreted:
You’re an idiot!

Sometime during 1981, Scott Fahlman, who is now a Principle Research Scientist in the School of Computer Science at Carnegie Mellon University, devised a scheme for encoding and conveying one’s feelings as small text “glyphs” to overcome this frustration.

Scott was the first to use smileys in electronic mail and in posts to BBS message boards and Internet newsgroups, as well as in personal e-mail.

The Emoticons
– Humor
(-: – Masking theatrical comments
:-T – Keeping a straight face (tight-lipped)
– Said with a smile
:-> – Alternate happy face
– Loud guffaw
:*) – Clowning around
– Licking lips
%-} – Silly
:/) – Not funny
:-” – Pursing lips
:-r – Bleahhh (sticking tongue out)
:-f – Smirks
:-p – Smirks
:-1 – Smirks
:-, – Smirks
– Disgusted
:-J – Tongue-in-cheek comments
:-! – Foot in mouth
:-$ – Put your money where your mouth is
– Talks too much
:-I – Chewing on bone
%&$%& – You know what that means…
– Shouting
:-y – Shouting
– Shouting
– Unhappy
:-c – Real unhappy
(:-& – Anger
(:^( – Broken nose
(:<) – Blabber mouth
?-( – Black eye
%-) – Broken glasses
:-b – Tongue stuck out
:-p – Left-handed tongue stuck out
> –-> –-(@ – A rose
||*( – Handshake offered
||*) – Handshake accepted
– Kiss kiss
o= – A burning candle to start a flame
~= – Flaming message
-= – A doused candle to end a flame
|-<> – Kissy face
[] – Hug
(-_-) – Secret smile
‘-) – Wink
– Say no more; nudge, nudge
:-* – Oops! (Covering mouth with hand)
:-# – Censored
:-8 – Talking out both sides of your mouth
>:> – Leer
:-X – Not saying a word
(:-… – Heart-breaking message…
– “Oh, noooooo!” (a la Mr. Bill)
#:-o – Same as previous
… –-… – S.O.S.
:-< – Forlorn
|-( – Late night messages
(:-$ – Ill
(:-( – Sad
%- – Hung over
:~/ – All mixed up
#-) – Another all-night partier
:-’| – With a cold
%+{ – Loser in a fight
( ) – You’re kidding!
<:-O – Eeek!
:-C – Unbelieving (jaw dropped)
*) – About to vomit

E-mail Shorthand2U2 – To You, Too AAMOF – As A Matter Of Fact
AFAIK – As Far As I Know
AFAIC – As Far As I’m Concerned
AFAICT – As Far As I Can Tell
AFK – Away From Keyboard
ASAP – As Soon As Possible
BAK – Back At Keyboard
BBL – Be Back Later
BITMT – But In The Meantime
BOT – Back On Topic
BRB – Be Right Back
BTW – By the way
C4N – Ciao For Now
CRS – Can’t Remember “Stuff”
CU – See You
CUL(8R) – See You Later
CWOT – Complete Waste Of Time
CYA – See Ya
DIY – Do It Yourself
EOD – End Of Discussion
EZ – Easy
F2F – Face To Face
FAQ – Frequently Asked Questions
FBOW – For Better Or Worse
FOAF – Friend Of A Friend
FOCL – Falling Off Chair Laughing
FWIW – For What It’s Worth
FYA – For Your Amusement
FYI – For Your Information
/ga – Go Ahead
GAL – Get A Life
GBTW – Get Back To Work
GFC – Going For Coffee
GFETE – Grinning From Ear To Ear
GMTA – Great minds think alike
GR&D – Grinning, Running & Ducking
GTG – Got To Go
GTGTTBR – Got To Go To The Bathroom
GTRM – Going To Read Mail
HAND – Have A Nice Day
HHOK – Ha Ha Only Kidding
HTH – Hope This Helps
IAC – In Any Case
IAE – In Any Event
IC – I See
IDGI – I Don’t Get It
IMCO – In My Considered Opinion
IMHO – In my humble opinion
IMNSHO – in My Not So Humble Opinion
IMO – In My Opinion
IMPE – In My Personal Experience
IMVHO – In My Very Humble Opinion
IOW – In Other Words
IRL – In Real Life
ISP – Internet Service Provider
IYKWIM – If You Know What I Mean
JIC – Just In Case
J/K – Just kidding
KISS – Keep It Simple Stupid
L8TR – Later
LD – Later dude
LOL – Laughing Out Loud
LTNS – Long Time No See
MorF – Male or Female, or person who asks that question
MTCW – My Two Cents Worth
NRN – No Reply Necessary
ONNA – Oh No, Not Again!
OTOH – On The Other Hand
OTTOMH – Off the top of my head
OIC – Oh I See
OTF – On The Floor
OLL – Online Love
PLS – Please
PU – That Stinks!
REHI – Hello Again (re-Hi!)
ROFL – Rolling On Floor Laughing
ROTF – Rolling On The Floor
ROTFL – Rolling On The Floor Laughing
RSN – Real Soon Now
RTDox – Read The Documentation/Directions
RTFM – Read The Frickin’ Manual
RUOK – Are You OK?
SNAFU – Situation Normal; All Fouled Up
SO – Significant Other
SOL – Smiling Out Loud (or Sh*t Out of Luck)
TANSTAAFL – There Ain’t No Such Thing As A Free Lunch
TAFN – That’s All For Now
TEOTWAWKI – The End Of The World As We Know It
THX – Thanks
TIA – Thanks In Advance
TLK2UL8R – Talk to you later
TMK – To My Knowledge
TOS – Terms Of Service
TPTB – The Powers That Be
TSWC – Tell Someone Who Cares
TTBOMK – To The Best Of My Knowledge
TTFN – Ta-Ta For Now
TTYL(8R) – Talk To You Later
TWIMC – To Whom It May Concern
Txs – Thanks
URL – Web Page Address
w/b – Welcome Back
w/o – Without
WRT – With Regard To
WTG – Way To Go
WU? – What’s Up?
WWW – World Wide Web
WYSIWYG – What You See Is What You Get
Y2K – Year 2000
YGIAGAM – Your Guess Is As Good As Mine
YGWYPF – You Get What You Pay For
YMMV – Your Mileage May Vary
ZZZ – Sleeping

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Why are most Glow-in-the-Dark items are green, and why do they glow?

by Tj Helm on 09,01,0808 in Did You Know

A phenomenon named phosphorescence is responsible for the light most Glow-in-the-Dark items emit.

Phosphorescence occurs when light absorbed by an object is slowly released and can be observed even after the light is removed. If not tampered with, the light the object emits is dim, and is always pale blue in color.

Chemists had a bright idea to spark interest in this phenomenon and to make it visually stimulating. They discovered that when they mixed fluorescent dye with the phosphorescent material, the object emitted a glowing, brighter green, or sometimes red, light.

The reason for this transformation is that fluorescent compounds absorb the light and rapidly emit it, giving the compounds a glowing appearance. This phenomenon occurs only in the constant presence of the original light source.

The phosphorescent material absorbs the light, and slowly emits a pale blue light, that in turn is absorbed by fluorescent dye. The light now emitted is green or red light, depending on the type of dye used.

The most commonly used phosphorescent material used is zinc sulfide mixed with copper, and the green fluorescent dye most likely is sodium fluorescein. The most likely source or red fluorescent dye is rhodamine. Paired together, the phosphorescent material and the fluorescent material produce a ghostly, glowing green or red light, and hours of enjoyment for young and for old alike.

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Where did the dollar sign come from?

by Tj Helm on 07,31,0808 in Did You Know

It is only appropriate that an Irish immigrant to the United States be the one credited with originating the dollar sign. Oliver Pollock sailed the high seas at the age of twenty-three, and settled in Carlisle, Pennsylvania. This young entrepreneur rapidly established himself as a wealthy and influential West Indies trader.

Pollock moved his operation to Louisiana, where he amassed even more wealth as a trader, and as a plantation owner. His success enabled him to provide supplies to the Patriots’ cause in the Revolutionary War, and to maintain close contact and a degree of influence with Congress. Pollock’s success allowed him easily to purchase military supplies to support “the cause,” as the Spanish Empire had an outpost in New Orleans, Louisiana. In his dealings with the Spaniards, Pollock used their currency, the peso.

In true Spanish tradition, Pollock used an abbreviation for pesos, yet his penmanship made the abbreviation appear to be the transposition of the letters “p” and “s.”

Prior to 1775, the fledgling nations monetary system was in disarray, and needed to be revamped. By 1775, Congress decided to rectify the situation by backing all of its legal tender with the most commonly circulated coins that were, coincidentally, Spanish coins minted in the New World. Americans then began trading with “Spanish milled dollars,” later termed “dollars,” as Americans shed the “pounds” that were the vestiges of British rule.

Congressman Robert Morris, to whom Pollock addressed his billing records, perpetuated the use of the dollar sign, and was the first high government official to give his blessing to the “s” with the two lines through it.

The appearance of the dollar sign in print, in a 1797 book by Chauncey Lee, signified the acceptance of the dollar as a purely American symbol, much as is the bald eagle. And, no, the dollar sign formed by placing the letter “U” over the letter “S” is not an abbreviation for Uncle Sam, as some have suggested!

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The Constitution of the United States of America

by Tj Helm on 07,01,0808 in Did You Know

Preamble

We the People of the United States, in order to form a more perfect union, establish justice, insure domestic tranquility, provide for the common defence, promote the general welfare, and secure the blessing of liberty to ourselves and our posterity, do ordain and establish the Constitution of the United States of America.

Article I.
Sect. 1. All legislative powers herein granted shall be vested in a Congress of the United States, which shall consist of a Senate and a House of Representatives.

Sect. 2. The House of Representatives shall be composed of members chosen every second year by the people of the several states, and the electors in each state shall have the qualifications requisite for electors of the most numerous branch of the state legislature. No person shall be a representative who shall not have attained to the age of twenty-five years, and been seven years a citizen of the United States, and who shall not, when elected, be an inhabitant of that state in which he shall be chosen.

Representative and direct taxes shall be apportioned among the several states which may be included within this Union, according to their respective numbers, which shall be determined by adding to the whole number of free persons, including those bound to service for a term of years, and excluding Indians not taxed, three-fifths of all other persons. The actual enumeration shall be made within three years after the first meeting of the Congress of the United States, and within every subsequent term of ten years in such manner as they shall be law direct. The number of representative shall not exceed one for every thirty thousand, but each state shall have at least one representative; and until such enumeration shall be made, the state of New Hampshire shall be entitled to choose three, Massachusetts eight, Rhode Island and Providence Plantations one, Connecticut five, New-York six, New- Jersey four, Pennsylvania eight, Delaware one, Maryland six, Virginia ten, North-Carolina five, South-Carolina five, and Georgia three.

When vacancies happen in the representation from any state, the Executive authority thereof shall issue writs of election to fill such vacancies.

The House of Representatives shall choose the Speaker and other officers; and shall have the sole power of impeachment.

Sect. 3. The Senate of the United States shall be composed of two senators from each state chosen by the legislature thereof, for six years and each senator shall have one vote.

Immediately after they shall be assembled in consequence of the first election, they hall be divided as equally as may be into three classes. The seats of the senators of the first class shall be vacated at the expiration of the second year, of the second class at the expiration of the fourth year, and of the third class at the expiration of the sixth year, so that one-third may be chosen every second year; and if vacancies happen by resignation, or otherwise during the recess of the legislature of any state, the Executive thereof may make temporary appointments until the next meeting of the Legislature, which shall then fill such vacancies.

No person shall be a senator who shall not have attained to the age of thirty years, and been nine years a citizen of the United States, who shall not, when elected, be an inhabitant of that state for which he shall be chosen.

The Vice-President of the United States shall be President of the Senate, but shall have no vote unless they be equally divided.

The Senate shall choose their other officers, and also a President pro tempore, in the absence of the Vice-President, or when he shall exercise the office of President of the United States.

The Senate shall have the sole power to try all impeachments. When sitting for that purpose, they shall be on oath or affirmation. When the President of the United States is tried, the Chief Justice shall preside: And no person shall be convicted without the concurrence of two-thirds of the members present.

Judgement in cases of impeachment shall not extend further than to removal from office and disqualification to hold and enjoy any office of honor, trust or profit under the United States; but the party convicted shall nevertheless be liable and subject to indictment, trial, judgment and punishment, according to law.

Sect. 4. The times, places and manner of holding elections for senators and representatives, shall be prescribed in each state by the legislature thereof: but the Congress may at any time by law make or alter such regulations, except as to the places of choosing Senators.

The Congress shall assemble at least once in every year, and such meeting shall be on the first Monday in December, unless they shall be law appoint a different day.

Sect. 5. Each house shall be the judge of the elections, returns and qualifications of its own members, and a majority of each shall constitute a quorum to do business; but a smaller number may adjourn from day to day, and may be authorized to compel the attendance of absent members, in such manner, and under such penalties as each house may provide.

Each house may determine the rules of its proceedings, punish its members for disorderly behaviour, and with the concurrence of two- thirds, expel a member. Each house shall keep a journal of its proceedings, and from time to time publish the same, excepting such parts as may in their judgment require secrecy; and the yeas and nays of the members either house on any question shall, at the desire of one-fifth of those present be entered on the journal.

Neither house, during the session of Congress shall, without the consent of the other, adjourn for more than three days, nor to any other place than that in which the two houses shall be sitting.

Sect. 6. The senators and representatives shall receive a compensation for their services, to be ascertained by law, and paid out of the treasury of the United States. They shall in all cases, except treason, felony and breach of the peace, be privileged from arrest during their attendance at the session of their respective houses, and in going to and returning from the same; and for any speech or debate in either house, they shall not be questioned in any other place.

No senator or representative shall, during the time for which he was elected, be appointed to any civil office under the authority of the United States, which shall have been created, or the emoluments whereof shall have been increased during such time; and no person holding any office under the United States, shall be a member of either house during his continuance in office.

Sect. 7. All bill for raising revenue shall originate in the house of representative; but the senate may propose or concur with amendments as on other bills.

Every bill which shall have passed the house of representatives and the senate, shall, before it become a law, be presented to the president of the United States; if he approve he shall sign it, but if not he shall return it, with his objections to that house in which it shall have originated, who shall enter the objections at large
on
their journal, and proceed to reconsider it. If after such reconsideration two-thirds of that house shall agree to pass the bill, it shall be sent, together with the objections, to the other house, by which is shall likewise be reconsidered, and if approved by two-thirds of that house, it shall become a law. But in all such cases the votes of both houses shall be determined by yeas and nays, and the names of the persons voting for and against the bill shall be entered on the journal of each house respectively. If any bill shall not be returned by the President within ten days (Sundays excepted) after it shall have been presented to him, the same shall be a law, in like manner as if he had signed it, unless the Congress by their adjournment prevent its return, in which case it shall not be a law.

Every order, resolution, or vote to which the concurrence of the Senate and House of Representative may be necessary (except on a question of adjournment) shall be presented to the President of the United States; and before the same shall take effect, shall be approved by him, or being disapproved by him, shall be repassed by two-thirds of the Senate and House of Representatives, according to the rules and limitations prescribed in the case of a bill.

Sect. 8. The Congress shall have power

To lay and collect taxes, duties, imposts and excises, to pay the debts and provide for the common defence and general welfare of the United States; but all duties, imposts and excises shall be uniform throughout the United States.

To borrow money on the credit of the United States;

To regulate commerce with foreign nations, and among the several states, and with the Indian tribes;

To establish an uniform rule of naturalization, and uniform laws on the subject of bankruptcies throughout the United States;

To coin money, regulate the value thereof, and of foreign coin, and fix the standard of weights and measures;

To provide for the punishment of counterfeiting the securities and current coin of the United States;

To establish post offices and post roads;

To promote the progress of science and useful arts, by securing for limited times to authors and inventors the exclusive right to their respective writings and discoveries;

To constitute tribunals inferior to the supreme court;

To define and punish piracies and felonies committed on the high seas, and offences against the law of nations;

To declare war, grant letters of marque and reprisal, and make rules concerning captures on land and water;

To raise and support armies, but no appropriation of money to that use shall be for a longer term than two years;

To provide and maintain a navy;

To make rules for the government and regulation of the land and naval forces;

To provide for calling forth the militia to execute the laws of the union, suppress insurrections and repel invasions.;

To provide for organizing, arming, and disciplining, the militia, and for governing such part of them as may be employed in the service of the United States, reserving to the States respectively, the appointment of the officers, and the authority of training the militia according to the discipline prescribed by Congress;

To exercise exclusive legislation in all cases whatsoever, over such district (not exceeding ten miles square) as may, by cession of particular States, and the acceptance of Congress, become the seat of the government of the United States, and to exercise like authority over all places purchased by the consent of the legislature of the states in which the same shall be, for the erection of forts, magazines, arsenals, dockyards, and other needful buildings; -And

To make all laws which shall be necessary and proper for carrying into execution the foregoing powers, and all other powers vested by the Constitution in the government of the United States, or in any department or officer thereof.

Sect. 9. The migration or importation of such persons as any of the states now existing shall think proper to admit, shall not be prohibited by the Congress prior to the year one thousand eight hundred and eight, but a tax or duty may be imposed on such importation, not exceeding ten dollars for each person.

The privilege of the writ of habeas corpus shall not be suspended, unless when in cases of rebellion or invasion the public safety require it.

No bill of attainder or ex post facto law shall be passed.

No capitation, or other direct, tax shall be laid, unless in proportion to the census or enumeration herein before directed to be taken.

No tax or duty shall be laid on articles exported from any state. No preference shall be given by any regulation of commerce or revenue to the ports of one state over those of another: nor shall vessels bound to, or from, one state, be obliged to enter, clear, or pay duties in another.

No money shall be drawn from the treasury, but in consequence of appropriations made by law; and a regular statement and account of the receipts and expenditures of all public money shall be published from time to time.

No title of nobility shall be granted by the United States:–And no person holding any office of profit or trust under them, shall, without the consent of the Congress, accept of any present, emolument, office, or title, of any kind whatever, from any king, prince, or foreign state.

Sect. 10. No state shall enter into any treaty, alliance, or confederation; grant letters of marque and reprisal; coin money; emit bills of credit; make any thing but gold and silver coin a tender in payment of debts; pass any bill of attainder, ex post facto law, or law impairing the obligation of contracts, or grant any title of nobility.

No state shall, without the consent of the Congress, lay any imposts or duties on imports or exports, except what may be absolutely necessary for executing its inspection laws; and the net produce of all duties and imposts, laid by any state on imports or exports, shall be for the use of the Treasury of the United States; all such laws shall be subject to the revision and control of the Congress. No state shall, without the consent of Congress, lay any duty of tonnage, keep troops, or ships of war in time of peace, enter into any agreement or compact with another state, or with a foreign power, or engage in war, unless actually invaded, or in such imminent danger as will not admit of delay.

Article II.
Sect. 1. The executive power shall be vested in a president of the United States of America. He shall hold his office during the term of four years, and, together with the vice-president, chosen for the same term, be elected as follows.

Each state shall appoint, in such manner as the legislature thereof may direct, a number of electors, equal to the whole number of senators and representatives to which the state may be entitled in the Congress: but no senator or representative, or person holding an office of trust or profit under the United States, shall be appointed an elector.

The electors shall meet in their respective states, and vote by ballot for two persons, of
whom one at least shall not be an inhabitant of the same state with themselves. And they shall make a list of all the persons voted for, and of the number of votes for each; which list they shall sign and certify, and transmit sealed to the seat of the government of the United States, directed to the president of the senate. The president of the senate shall, in the presence of the senate and house of representatives, open all the certificates, and the votes shall then be counted. The person having the greatest number of votes shall be the president, if such number be a majority of the whole number of electors appointed; and if there be more than one who have such majority, and have am equal number of electors appointed; and if there be more than one who have such majority, and have an equal number of votes, then the house of representatives shall immediately choose by ballot one of them for president; and if no person have a majority, then from the five highest on the list the said house shall in like manner choose the president. But in choosing the president, the votes shall be taken by states, the representation from each state having one vote; a quorum for this purpose shall consist of a member or members from two-thirds of the states, and a majority of all the states shall be necessary to a choice. In every case, after the choice of the president, the person having the greatest number of votes of the electors shall be the vice-president. But if there should remain two or more who have equal votes, the senate shall choose from them by ballot the vice-president.

The Congress may determine the time of the choosing the electors, and the day on which they shall give their votes; which day shall be the same throughout the United States.

No person except a natural born citizen, or a citizen of the United States, at the time of the adoption of this constitution, shall be eligible to the office of president; neither shall any person be eligible to that office who shall not have attained to the age of thirty-five years, and been fourteen years a resident within the United States.

In case of the removal of the president from office, or his death, resignation, or inability to discharge the powers and duties of the said office, the same shall devolve on the vice-president, and the Congress may by law provide for the case of removal, death, resignation or inability, both of the president and vice- president, declaring what officer shall then act as president, and such officer shall act accordingly, until the disability be removed, or a president be elected.

The president shall, at stated times, receive for his services, a compensation, which shall neither be encreased nor diminished during the period for which he shall have been elected, and he shall not receive within that period any other emolument from the United States, or any of them.

Before he enter on the execution of his office, he shall take the following oath or affirmation:

“I do solemnly swear (or affirm) that I will faithfully execute the office of president of the United States, and will to the best of my ability, preserve, protect and defend the constitution of the United States.”

Sect. 2. The president shall be commander in chief of the army and navy of the United States, and of the militia of the several States, when called into the actual service of the United States; he may require the opinion, in writing of the principal officer in each of the executive departments, upon any subject relating to the duties of their respective offices, and he shall have power to grant reprieves and pardons for offences against the United States, except in cases of impeachment.

He shall have power, by and with the advice and consent of the senate, to make treaties, provided two-thirds of the senators present concur; and he shall nominate, and by and with the advice and consent of the senate, shall appoint ambassadors, other public ministers and consuls, judges of the supreme court, and all other officers of the United States, whose appointments are not herein otherwise provided for, and which shall be established by law. But the Congress may by law vest the appointment of such inferior officers, as they think proper, in the president alone, in the courts of law, or in the heads of departments.

The president shall have power to fill up all vacancies that may happen during the recess of the senate, by granting commissions which shall expire at the end of their session.

Sect. 3. He shall from time to time give to the Congress information of the state of the union, and recommend to their consideration such measures as he shall judge necessary and expedient; he may, on extraordinary occasions, convene both houses, or either of them, and in case of disagreement between them, with respect to the time of adjournment, he may adjourn them to such time as he shall think proper; he shall receive ambassadors and other public ministers; he shall take care that the laws be faithfully executed, and shall commission all the officers of the United States.

Sect. 4. The president, vice-president and all civil officers of the United States, shall be removed from office on impeachment for, and conviction of, treason, bribery, or other high crimes and misdemeanors.

Article III.
Sect. 1. The judicial power of the United States shall be vested in one Supreme Court, and in such inferior courts as the Congress may from time to time ordain and establish. The judges, both of the Supreme and inferior courts, shall hold their offices during good behavior, and shall, at stated time, receive for their services a compensation which shall not be diminished during their continuance in office.

Sect. 2.
1. The judicial power shall extend to all cases, in law and equity, arising under this Constitution, the laws of the United States, and treaties made, or which shall be made, under their authority; to all cases affecting ambassadors, other public ministers, and consuls; to all cases of admiralty and maritime jurisdiction; to controversies to which the United States shall be a party; to controversies between two or more States, between a State and citizens of another State, between citizens of different States, between citizens of the same State claiming lands under grants of different States, and between a State or the citizens thereof, and foreign states, citizens, or subjects.

2. In all cases affecting ambassadors, other public ministers and consuls, and those in which a State shall be a party, the Supreme Court shall have original jurisdiction. In all the other cases before mentioned, the Supreme Court shall have appellate jurisdiction, both as to law and fact, with such exceptions and under such regulations as the Congress shall make.

3. The trial of all crimes, except in cases of impeachment, shall be by jury; and such trial shall be held in the State where the said crimes shall have been committed; but when not committed within any State the trial shall be at such place or places as the Congress may by law have directed.

Sect. 3.
1. Treason against the United States shall consist only in levying war against them, or in adhering to their enemies, giving them aid and comfort. No person shall

be convicted of treason unless on the testimony of two witnesses to the same overt act, or on confession in open court.

2. The Congress shall have power to declare the punishment of treason, but no attainder of treason shall work corruption of blood, or forfeiture except during the life of the person attained.

Article IV
Sect. 1. Full faith and credit shall be given in each State to the public act, records, and judicial proceedings of every other State. And the Congress may, by general laws, prescribe the manner in which such acts, records, and proceedings shall be proved, and the effect thereof.

Sect. 2.
1. The citizens of each State shall be entitled to all privileges and immunities of citizens in the several States.

2. A person charged in any State with treason, felony, or other crime, who shall flee from justice, and be found in another State, shall, on demand of the executive authority of the State from which he fled, be delivered up, to be removed to the State having jurisdiction of the crime.

3. No person held to service or labor in one State, under the laws thereof, escaping into another, shall, in consequence of any law or regulation therein, be discharged from such service or labor, but shall be delivered up on claim of the party to whom such service or labor may be due.

Sect. 3.
1. New States may be admitted by the Congress into this Union; but no new State shall be formed or erected within the jurisdiction of any other State, nor any State be formed by the junction of two or more States, or parts of States, without the consent of the legislatures of the States concerned as well as of the Congress.

2. The Congress shall have power to dispose of and make all needful rules and regulations respecting the territory or other property belonging to the United States; and nothing in this Constitution shall be so construed as to prejudice any claims of the United States, or of any particular State.

Sect. 4. The United States shall guarantee to every State in this Union a republican form of government, and shall protect each of them against invasion; and on application of the legislature, or of the executive (when the legislature cannot be convened), against domestic violence.

Article V.
The Congress, whenever two-thirds of both House shall deem it necessary, shall propose amendments to this Constitution, or, on the application of the legislatures of two-thirds of the several States, shall call a convention for proposing amendments, which, in either case, shall be valid, to all intents and purposes, as part of this Constitution, when ratified by the legislatures of three-fourths of the several States, or by conventions in three- fourths thereof, as the one or the other mode of ratification may be proposed by the Congress; provided [that no amendment which may be made prior to the year one thousand eight hundred and eight shall in any manner affect the first and fourth clauses in the ninth section of the first Article;] and that no State, without its consent, shall be deprived of its equal suffrage in the Senate.

Article VI.
Sect. 1. All debts contracted and engagements entered into, before the adoption of this Constitution, shall be as valid against the United States under this Constitution, as under the Confederation.

Sect. 2. This Constitution, and the laws of the United States which shall be made in pursuance thereof, and all treaties made, or which shall be made, under the authority of the United States, shall be the supreme law of the land; and the judges in every State shall be bound thereby, anything in the constitution or laws of any State to the contrary notwithstanding.

Sect. 3. The Senators and Representatives before mentioned, and the members of the several State legislatures, and all executive and judicial officers, both of the United States and of the several States, shall be bound, by oath or affirmation, to support this Constitution; but no religious test shall ever be required as a qualification to any office or public trust under the United States.

Article VII.
The ratification of the conventions of nine States shall be sufficient for the establishment of this Constitution between the States so ratifying the same.

Done in Convention, by the unanimous consent of the States present, the seventeenth day of September, in the year of our Lord one thousand seven hundred and eighty-seven, and of the Independence of the United States of America the twelfth. In Witness whereof, we have hereunto subscribed our names.

Attest: William Jackson, Secretary
George Washington PRESIDENT AND DEPUTY FROM VIRGINIA

NEW HAMPSHIRE
John Langdon Nicholas Gilman

MASSACHUSETTS Nathaniel Gorham
Rufus King

NEW YORK
Alexander Hamilton

NEW JERSEY
William Livingston
David Brearley
William Paterson
Jonathan Dayton

PENNSYLVANIA
Benjamin Franklin
Thomas Mifflin
Robert Morris
George Clymer
Thomas Fitzsimons
Jared Ingersoll
James Wilson
Gouverneur Morris

DELAWARE
George Read
Gunning Bedford, Jr.
John Dickinson
Richard Bassett
Jacob Broom

MARYLAND
James McHenry
Dan of St. Thomas Jennifer
Daniel Carroll

VIRGINIA
John Blair
James Madison, Jr.

NORTH CAROLINA
William Blount
Richard Dobbs Spaight
Hugh Williamson

SOUTH CAROLINA
John Rutledge
Charles Cotesworth Pinckney
Charles Pinckney
Pierce Butler

GEORGIA
William Few
Abraham Baldwin

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How do fingernails grow?

by Tj Helm on 06,03,0808 in Did You Know

Fingernails and toenails grow from a point near the roots below the skin, at the base of the nail where the nail is very thin. White in color, and half-moon in shape, this semi-circle is appropriately named the “lunula,” and comprises a group of cells that manufacture keratin, a dead, hoof-like protein. The keratin like protein produced, gathers and merges with the nail plate, the dead armor that protects the soft and tender nail bed underneath, and pushes the entire nail up and out. Though the fingernails and toenails grow an average of two inches per year, their growth slows with age, and the average adult’s fingernails grow only one inch over the course of eight months.

The base of the fingernails and toenails, as well as some of the nail along both sides of the nail, are embedded into the skin. Unlike other skin, this skin contains elastic fibers that connect it to the fingernail or toenail, and hold it firmly in place. The cuticle, a rim of skin over the lunula, protects it from bacterial infection, serves as a shock absorber, and shields the nail from any sudden impacts.

Though many consider dressing the fingernails up to go out a statement of beauty, or one of vanity, they serve those in the medical field as a diagnostic tool. Normally, the lunula, or half-moon, is white in color, indicating proper nutrition and good overall health. Blue lunula raise red flags that circulatory problems to the fingers may exist. Nails that are hard, brittle, and tend to split easily, may also be clues to poor circulation, infection, or disturbances of the glandular and nutritional systems.

Further nails that curl sharply around the finger point to coronary, liver, or lung diseases. Nails that are sunken in appearance often indicate anemia, a condition where an insufficient amount of oxygen is carried by the blood.

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Why is the Eagle the national emblem of the United States?

by Tj Helm on 05,07,0808 in Did You Know

In 1782, Congress selected the bald eagle as the emblem of the newly formed United States, because it symbolized courage and might, and because it was indigenous only to the United States and to Canada.

The national seal depicts the bald eagle with its wings spread, with one claw clutching an olive branch, and the other claw grasping arrows. The eagle, however, strikes different poses on other national depictions.

The bald eagle owes its name to the early American colonists, and is bald in name only. As the white-headed American eagle differed from the European gray eagle, the colonists used their word for white, which translated into bald, in describing it. Unfortunately for the eagle, the literal translation, bald-headed, stuck like a toupee.

Since ancient times, men have identified themselves with the eagle, because it creates an impression of majesty and of power while in flight. As early as 5,000 years ago, ancient Sumerians chose the eagle, in spread eagle form, as their emblem symbolizing their power. Ancient Romans followed suit, as did Emperor Charlemagne, and finally Napoleon. No doubt, Congress considered the eagle’s historical pedigree as being the animal representing a nation’s power, when selecting it to be the national emblem of the United States.

Did you know?
Ben Franklin wanted the turkey, not the eagle, to be the U.S. national symbol. He considered the eagle a “bird of bad moral character” because it lives “by sharping and robbing.”

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